Oral Glucose Tolerance Test Report

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test Report Jason Taylor Introduction Glucose is a simple sugar that provides nearly half of the body’s energy, it can’t be eaten directly thus it is obtained from eating foods that contain carbohydrates. The liver stores about 1/3 of the body’s total glucose in the form of glycogen while muscle cells store 2/3 of glucose in the same form (Whitney Rolfe, p99). The amount of sugar present in the blood is known as the blood sugar, these levels need to be tightly regulated by the body (Jiang Zhang 2003). Eating food causes an increase in blood glucose levels, this stimulates insulin release from the pancreas into the blood stream, insulin stimulates glucose uptake into cells, stimulates liver and muscle cells to store it as glycogen and then the excess glucose is converted into fat (Whitney Rolfe, p99). Low blood glucose levels are stimulated by the glucagon release from the pancreas, this causes the stored glycogen to be converted to glucose which causes an increase in the blood glucose levels (Whit ney Rolfe, p99). Diabetes Mellitus is a group of disorders that have glucose intolerance in common, type I and type II diabetes are the most common. Type I diabetes mellitus is when the cells don’t produce enough insulin and its symptoms include excessive thirst and urination, lethargy, unexplained weight loss and wounds that heal slowly. Type I diabetes is due to the loss of beta cells in the pancreas which are responsible for the secretion of insulin (McCance Huether, pg745). There have been two types of type I diabetes identified, type 1A is an autoimmune disease in which environmental and genetic factors trigger the destruction of beta cells. Type 1B is non-immune and it’s when individuals having varying amounts of insulin deficiency (McCance Huether, pg746). Type II diabetes mellitus is less common and is when cells don’t respond to insulin, genetic factors such as a lack of insulin receptors combined with environmental influences like obesity can result in the pathophysio logic mechanisms for type II diabetes like decreased insulin secretion and insulin resistance. These are crucial for the development of type II diabetes mellitus (McCance Huether, pg750). There are numerous complications associated with diabetes such as hypoglycaemia, hyperglycaemia and diabetic ketoacidosis. Hypoglycaemia is when there’s low levels of glucose which is damaging as the brain and nervous system rely on glucose to function. Hypoglycaemia can be caused by too much insulin, strenuous physical exertion or inadequate food intake (Munter Spiegelman, 2007). Impaired glucose regulation can lead to hyperglycaemia which is abnormally high levels of glucose in the blood, for this to occur at least 80-90% of the beta cell function have to be compromised (McCance Huether, pg758). Carbohydrates need to be broken down into monosaccharaides before they can be absorbed. Their digestion begins in the mouth when salivary amylase hydrolyses them to shorter polysaccharides, they then progress to the stomach that doesn’t play a role in carbohydrate digestion however its low pH inactivates the salivary amylase (Whitney Rolfe, p101). The small intestine is where most of the digestion occurs, pancreatic amylase breaks down the polysaccharides to monosaccharide’s which are then absorbed (Whitney Rolfe, p103). A glucometer is used to calculate the concentration of glucose in the blood, a small drop of blood or a sample is placed on a disposable strip which is inserted into the glucometer which calculates the blood sugar levels (Whitney Rolfe, 2013). An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) is used to detect diabetes mellitus, there are accepted minimum and maximum values for glucose levels in blood (mmol/L) to be within, if they are beneath or exceed them it could indicate a diabetic profile. In this report we investigated the presence of glucose in urine samples as well as the BGL in prepared samples to determine if any of the patients showed a diabetic profile. Methods Most of the methods were followed as stated in: â€Å"RMB2530 Pathophysiology 1: Laboratory Manual, 2013† however due to safety and health issues real blood and urine samples were not taken. Results Table 3: Class Glucose Tolerance Test Results (Mary) Table 3: Class Glucose Tolerance Test Results (Alex) Graph 1: Blood Glucose Vs. Time for Mary and Alex Discussion Mary had a normal OGTT result as her blood glucose levels didn’t have a dramatic increase and they decreased efficiently as well. Mary’s blood glucose rose at 30 minutes (6.06 mmol/L) however the liver responded to the extra glucose by releasing insulin which promoted the uptake of glucose by cells and its storage as glycogen (Rubin Strayer, pg680). Alex had an impaired response to glucose as his glucose levels rose at 30 minutes and kept rising till 60 minutes, his highest glucose reading was 16 mmol/L while Mary’s highest was 6 mmol/L. From 60 minutes onwards Alex’s blood glucose exceeded the maximum range acceptable for blood glucose levels. At 60 minutes his blood glucose was 17.16 mmol/L while the maximum accepted range is 8.9 mmol/L. This indicates a diabetic profile as a normal response is insulin release by the pancreatic beta cells that regulate glucose uptake in liver and skeletal muscle. The delayed decline in glucose suggests that the beta cel ls aren’t producing glucose or that the cells aren’t responding to the insulin (Rubin Strayer, pg1090). The liver is the primary organ involved in glucose homeostasis responding rapidly to fluctuation in blood glucose levels. The reason that there is an increase in blood glucose is due to the consumption of food. Eating foods causes an increase in blood glucose, this stimulates the release of insulin by the pancreas which is responsible for stimulating glucose uptake. Excess blood glucose is utilised by the body and stored as glycogen in liver and skeletal muscle while excess glucose is converted to fat (Whitney Rolfe, p99). During periods of starvation or fasting, there is a lack of glucose. Low blood glucose levels are stimulated by the glucagon release from the pancreas, this causes the stored glycogen in the liver to be converted to glucose which causes an increase in the blood glucose levels. The conversion of glucose to glucose is known as glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis is formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources such as amino acids and fatty acids and is utilised dur ing fasting periods. Symptoms of patients with diabetes mellitus include excessive urination and thirst, lethargy, headaches, dizziness, mood swings and leg cramps. Type I and II are the most commonly known diabetes forms however there are other types. Some people don’t have high enough blood glucose levels to be classified as diabetes, however since they are not normal it’s known as impaired glucose metabolism or pre-diabetes. There are two pre-diabetic conditions; impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and impaired fasting glucose (IFG). IGT is when glucose levels are not high enough to be classified as diabetes, however they are still high while IFG are when blood fasting glucose levels escalated during fasting states but are yet again not high enough to be classified as diabetes. Gestational diabetes is a high blood glucose level during pregnancy as a result of the hormones, it usually goes away after the baby’s birth. Excessive thirst with large amounts of diluted urine is known as diabetes insipidus (DI), it occurs in two forms; central diabetes insipidus (CDI) and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI). CDI is due to an ADH d eficiency, ADH or anti-diuretic hormone is responsible for retaining water. NDI is when the kidneys or nephrons are insensitive to ADH. Glycosuria is the presence of glucose in the urine, glucose is usually filtered back into the bloodstream by the kidneys. Untreated diabetes mellitus is due to elevated glucose levels which leads to glycosuria. Filtrate pass through sieves in the kidney walls and get reabsorbed in to the blood. Damage to the filters results in filtrate excretion into urine. Urine sample A belonged to Alex and was positive for glucose as it changed from blue (negative) to dark green (+). Urine sample B belonged to Mary and it was negative for glycosuria. Alex’s positive urine sample could be due to his elevated glucose levels. Any differences between individual results could be attributed to a number of different reasons, there could have been errors during the glucometer readings such as contaminating the glucometer stick. There could have been errors made during the pipetting of the stock glucose and water resulting in a different concentration to what was required. The experiment should be repeated again to add validity to the results. Overall the experiment followed scientific expectations, the patient with diabetes mellitus was identified through measurement of the blood glucose levels as well as testing of a urine sample. The experiment should be repeated again to add validity to the results. References Tortora, GJ, Funke, BR, Case, CL (2010).Microbiology: An Introduction. 10th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings. 318, 586, 587, 710. McCance, KL, Huether, SE, Brashers, VL, Rote, NS (2010).Pathophysiology:The biological Basis for Disease in Adults and Children. 6th ed. Missouri: Mosby Inc . 296, 1684. Rubin, R, Strayer, DS (2012).Rubins Pathology: Clincopathologic Foundations of Medicine. 6th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams Wilkins. 332, 346, 348. Jiang, G. Zhang, B.B. 2003, Glucagon and regulation of glucose metabolism,American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism,vol. 284, no. 4, pp. E671-678. Whitney, E Rolfes, S (2012).Understanding Nutrition. 13th ed. Australia New Zealand : Yolanda Cassio. Pg95-101.

Opinion on E-Tolls Essay

A democracy is a government by the people and when the people are not being led, but they are being forced, then there are many questions about the democratic government that need to be soliciting and retorting. The e-Toll system is an electronic tolling system that does not require motorists to stop in order for them to be billed, just as an ordinary toll booth. This system is being imposed on to the motorists of Gauteng and is being masked as a method of raising funds for the development of Gauteng roads and ultimately, South African roads. The imposing of this system is totally out of the scope of a democracy; it is a huge waste of tax payers’ money and should be totally abolished by the South African government. Several e-tolls are found on various highways in Gauteng and how they work is once you drive under them, it scans your e-tag and license plates (at the front and back), takes an aerial view of your car, measures the size of it (in order to know how much to bill you), finds who’s registered to the vehicle and then they are billed electronically. As fancy as it sounds, vehicle users in Gauteng are on the brink of daylight robbery with the new e-toll system that is about to be imposed on them by SANRAL (South African Road Agency Ltd.), and if nothing is done, the country will find itself being dragged by the neck in a so-called democracy. The first issue that comes into play with the e-toll system is the financial issue of e-tolls. SANRAL accumulated a debt in excess of 20 billion rands over the past few years with the renovations of the Gauteng highways. The government believes that this debt can be covered over several years by implementing the user-pay principle which is simply: road users paying to be on the roads. Two issues sprout from this. The first, OUTA has done some calculations on the total cost of repaying the debt over those 20 years and instead of the 20 billion rand owed, you find that with the e-toll, Gauteng motorists will be paying, an excess of 75 billion rands. The government is yet to explain why they are charging users a whole lot more than what they need to be repaying. This is a huge waste of tax payers’ money as there are already fuel levies being paid to help aid the construction of South African roads. The second, Austrian company Kapsch, will be collecting a total of 665 million ran d annually for the next 8 years, giving a feeling of private investors prospering rather than the benefit of the people. Government argues that this large income of money from e-Tolls will benefit the working and the poor class because they will not have to pay and they get the assurance of safer roads without having to pay. This all seems well but what government forgot to mention is the fact that with the increase in road usage, there will definitely be an increase in the cost of living. Trucking companies that deliver the cheap goods to local supermarket will increase their price of operation which will increase the price of goods which will surely impact their pockets. This does not just limit itself to the delivery of goods. E-tolls do not have as many benefits as first anticipated because the money spent is for the roads and you find that public transport in South Africa is still in a shocking state and many users will still get in vehicles that are not road-worthy and that will not benefit them even if the roads are better. South African, especially Gauteng, road users already have a big issue with the payment of traffic fines. The e-toll system will find that people will fail to pay their bills as in the case of Portugal. A country as developed as Portugal had a total of 19% of users failing to pay their fees and that saw more than a double-increase in the costs of administration in the short space of a year. South Africa, as a developing country, will have themselves a large handful of people who will not pay for their fees. The government will have themselves too much to deal with and will put the burden on the shoulders of the road users again and the cycle will not end.

What You Dont Know About Need Based Scholarship Essay Samples

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Qatar Petroleum and its HR Policy Free Essay Example, 5750 words

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